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Focusing and Organizing Compositions
After you have generated ideas and determined what you plan to write about in general, the next step is is narrowing down both the topic and the focus of your paper by devising a thesis statement or topic sentence clearly indicating your purpose for the entire paper. Then, after checking whether you have enough relevant supporting details, a clear order (both within the individual paragraphs and the paper as a whole), and an idea of possible connecting words and details, write a draft of your paper, as quickly as possible. Be sure to mark problem areas and jot down questions and ideas for possible changes as you go along. Don't forget--the three stages of the writing process frequently overlap! Thus, some revising may occur during the writing stage, and some generating of ideas may occur during the revising/proofreading stage
- Characteristics of Good
Compositions
- Good and Bad Thesis Statements and Topic Sentences
- A Sample Explanatory Paragraph
Characteristics of Good Compositions
In order for a composition to be clear, interesting, and persuasive, it must have four characteristics: unity, sufficient concrete supporting details, a clear ordering of information, and coherence.
1. Unity
If a composition has unity, it gives the reader the feeling that everything belongs, that it contains nothing irrelevant. Most experienced writers focus on a thesis statement or topic sentence stated somewhere in the composition, usually at or near the beginning, in order to ensure that unity exists. While professional writers sometimes omit a written topic sentence for a particular paragraph, they always have one in mind during the process of writing that paragraph.
Both a thesis statement and a topic sentence (= TS) have exactly the same function. The main difference between them is the length of the compositions they govern. A thesis statement controls an entire composition of several or many paragraphs, while a topic sentence normally controls a single paragraph or section of a larger essay. Both a thesis statement and a topic sentence can be divided into two parts: a topic (= the subject to be written about) and a controlling idea or CI (= the focus of the composition or paragraph). The controlling idea is most often the opinion that the writer has about the topic or the attitude that he or she has toward it:
(topic + CI=opinion)The student on the Board of Regents [should be allowed to vote].
The day [was cold and depressing]. (topic + CI=attitude)
Because a thesis statement governs a longer piece of writing than does a topic sentence, both the subject to be discussed and the controlling idea can be broader. Finally, the location of a thesis statement or topic sentence within a composition or a paragraph often affects how apparent the unity and organizational pattern are to the reader. For this reason a thesis statement usually appears at the end of the introduction of an essay (next to the first section supporting it in the paragraph immediately following the introduction), while a topic sentence is commonly the first sentence of a paragraph.
One method of checking for unity is what one author calls the " because test." To use this test, pick out the thesis statement of the composition or the topic sentence of the paragraph and say, "This statement is true because of what?" Anything that fits into the category of "what" is relevant and belongs in the composition. Anything that doesn't fit into that category should probably be omitted. In other words, all of the major supports of a thesis statement or topic sentence are those sentences that clearly and directly support the controlling idea part of the thesis statement or topic sentence, not just sentences that are about the stated topic alone. (In a composition of several paragraphs the major supports of the thesis statement will probably be the topic sentences of the various paragraphs or sections.) Minor supports of a thesis statement or a topic sentence are all the responses to a similar statement asked after a particular major support and are usually statements of fact. If desired, a question such as "Why?," "How?," "Who?," "When?," or "For example?" can be substituted for the above statement containing because. The trick is to use the same statement or question throughout the checking process at the same level. The question can be switched whenever the level is switched.
2. Concrete Unified Support
Concrete details--and the specific diction used to state them--are what make any piece of writing clear, convincing, and interesting. Because Americans customarily have a "Prove it!" attitude, it is usually best to give enough information so that the reader sees, feels, and hears what is happening and can then arrive at the conclusion the writer wants him to reach seemingly "on his own," without having to rely solely on the opinion of someone he probably doesn't know. Even if the reader doesn't in the end agree with the writer's conclusion, the writer can consider himself successful if his reader is willing to say, "I don't agree with you, but I understand why you believe as you do."
Many methods exist for getting details relevant to the discussion of a topic down on paper so that there is something to work with. Three of the four methods of generating ideas described in "Getting Started" (the laundry list, rapid writing, and thought links) can include supporting details. In addition, the because test that was mentioned above as a means of checking unity can also be used early in the writing process to help find relevant information to support a thesis statement or topic sentence. To use the because test in this way, write down a thesis statement or a topic sentence, and ask yourself, for instance, why you believe the statement to be true, how you came to feel as you do about it, or what kind of examples of the idea exist. As long as the same question is asked over and over, the resulting details will automatically support the thesis statement or topic sentence in a unified manner. If one of the answers (that is, one of the supports) needs reinforcement, ask the same question or a different question about that support repeatedly.
3. Order
There are almost as many different organizational patterns--and ways of ordering ideas within these overall patterns--as there are subjects to write about. In general, though, most writing done in American schools, newspapers, and magazines is linear: that is, the writer tells the reader what he is going to discuss (in a thesis statement or a topic sentence), discusses it (by means of major and minor supports), and then tells the reader that he has done so (in a conclusion, which often restates or refers to the thesis statement or topic sentence). There is no going off on tangents or polite circling around the topic. The organization is direct and to the point. There are no surprises.
The most common type of writing in both schools and the mass media is explanation (sometimes called expository writing), but narration, description, and argumentation are also sometimes used. The category of explanation includes such subcategories as process analysis, illustration, comparison/contrast, and cause and effect, but other subcategories such as definition do exist and are sometimes employed. The subject matter and the writer's purpose determine the pattern or combination of patterns in a particular piece of writing.
Note, however, that just choosing an overall pattern of organization for a composition is often insufficient. The writer should also have in mind a reason for ordering the ideas and details within the larger pattern. Without such a guide, what is written may be so jumbled that the reader is bored or even completely confused. Among the common orders are time order, space order, and order of importance (least important to most important or the reverse).
4. Coherence
The final major characteristic of a good composition is coherence. If a composition has good coherence, then all of the ideas seem to "stick together," or cohere, rather than jump abruptly from point to point. A coherent composition moves smoothly and logically from one idea to the next, and its sentences seem to "flow" from one to another so easily that the reader doesn't waste time wondering what the connection between one idea and the next is or trying to think up examples that illustrate or support a generalization. Everything needed is already present, and each section is clearly linked to the thesis or topic sentence.
Good coherence results from a combination of many different things: unity, adequate concrete support, clear order, repetition of key words and phrases, and the use of transition words and expressions as "signposts" directing the reader from place to place and from subtopic to subtopic. Even the crafting of sentence patterns to place the stress on the most important ideas or to put similar ideas in similar positions within one or more clauses or sentences is a part of coherence. In short, a coherent composition is one where ideas can be found in expected locations and where all necessary connecting words and details have been included.
Thesis statements and topic sentences (TS) play an important role in ensuring the unity of a piece of writing. The most important thing to remember is that for unity to exist the supporting details must fit with both the topic and the
controlling idea (CI), not just with the topic. Several characteristics of good thesis statements and topic sentences are listed below, followed by examples of common types of faulty topic sentences:Characteristics of Good Topic Sentences:
In other words, a thesis statement or topic sentence must spell out the particular judgment about a specific topic that the writer wishes to prove or explain to the reader. It must be arguable, something about which more than one opinion can exist. Cats make better pets than dogs. Pepsico uses unfair techniques to lure consumers into buying its products. My room in Binneweis Hall has all the comforts of home.a. A thesis statement or topic sentence must assert an opinion or attitude about the subject to be discussed, and the assertion must contain both a topic and a controlling idea.
b. A thesis statement or topic sentence must be limited enough for the composition to be developed sufficiently in the allotted space. A topic or a controlling idea that is too big cannot be adequately supported with concrete details and reasons within the length of the assignment. For instance, the following idea couldn't be discussed within the length of a short composition: "World War II led to the modernization of industrial facilities in Japan." A long article--or even a book--would be necessary to do this topic justice.
c. A thesis statement or topic sentence must be clearly stated. Pronoun references should be plain, and word choice should be as exact as possible, since imprecise or vague words may cause the reader to misunderstand. Furthermore, words expressing personal preference such as "good," "bad," "awful," terrible," "wonderful," and "beautiful" should usually be avoided, since they indicate little more than the fact that you like or don't like whatever it is you're discussing. Moreover, since everybody has a slightly different interpretation of such words, a statement containing one of these words is difficult to support adequately.
d. Only a single topic and controlling idea relationship should exist. More than one topic or controlling idea might cause the writer to drift away from a consistent focus and lead to a composition lacking in unity and containing irrelevant details. Don't, for instance, say "My school requires students to take too many useless classes, and the required recreational activities aren't good either." Either omit one of the clauses, or substitute a broader statement that both of these ideas support, such as, The curriculum at my school needs improvement. Another way to improve such a topic sentence is to subordinate one of the clauses so that the more important idea stands out. Note the difference between the following sentences: Vacationing in the Rockies can be a lot of fun, but horrible things can happen there too. vs. Although vacationing in the Rockies can be a lot of fun, my vacation there last summer was a total disaster. In the first sentence the writer has two equal focuses, "fun" and "horrible things," but in the second the primary emphasis is clearly "disaster."
e. Although it is not required to do so, a good thesis statement or topic sentence often indicates the organization of the composition. Instead of saying "McDonald's is better than the cafeteria in my school," say "The quick service, the tasty food, and the low cost make McDonald's a better place for a poor student to eat than my school's cafeteria." Not only is the pattern of organization clearer, but the CI is narrower and more specific.
Types of Bad Topic Sentences:
Bad topic sentences and theses lack one or more of the above qualities. Although many types of unacceptable thesis statements and topic sentences exist, including questions and definitions, a majority fall into four categories: statement of fact, title, announcement of the topic, and more than one topic and/or controlling idea.
1. A statement of fact = a statement whose truth or falseness can be determined and agreed upon if it is checked out
Unacceptable: George W. Bush won the 2004 election.
Possible TS: The wrong (or right) man won the election.
2. A title = a word or phrase indicating the topic, not a complete sentence
Unacceptable: Running a successful business.
Possible TS: Running a successful business isn't easy.
3. An announcement of the topic = a complete sentence indicating the topic but omitting a controlling idea
Unacceptable: I would like to tell you about my younger sister. or My topic today is my younger sister.
Possible TS: My younger sister can do anything she puts her mind to.
4. More than one topic and/or controlling idea
Unacceptable: Kevin is a prize-winning sculptor, and his brother is a talented pianist.
Possible TS: The Smith brothers prove that good educations are possible in small towns.
A Sample Explanatory Paragraph
The following breakdown of a paragraph into levels of generality demonstrates the manner in which generalizations and facts work together to produce a composition and illustrates the ways in which the four characteristics of good compositions mentioned above work together. In general, broad generalizations are supported by narrower generalizations and facts. Since the overall organizational pattern of the paragraph is the explanatory (or expository) pattern, the paragraph begins with a topic sentence, and a series of major and minor supports follow. The because test can be employed to check whether all the major supports have the same kind of relationship to the thesis and whether the supporting details have similar connections to their corresponding major supports. The majority of the details are placed in time order, and, accordingly, most of the transition words indicate the times in which the actions take place, although expressions signaling contrast, addition, and other relationships are also present. Among the other coherence techniques the writer employs are the repetition of key words and references to key ideas: for instance, "enemy" and "not my friend."
Topic Sentence: Ivan is my enemy.
Major: I first began to suspect that he wasn't my friend in the fourth grade when he tried to trip me whenever I walked past his desk.
Major: Then in the fifth grade my homework papers started disappearing whenever he was left alone in the room with them.
Major: In the sixth grade I noticed my classmates look at me disapprovingly and turn their backs when I approached.
Minor: After asking a number of people, I found out that Ivan had told all of them that I had cheated on the last history test, causing the curve to be much higher than it should have been.
Minor: He even told them that the teacher knew I had cheated but didn't care because she liked me and wanted me to get the best grade in the class.
Minor: When I confronted him, he claimed to be surprised that anyone would take his little joke seriously.
Major: However, what made me certain that Ivan was more than just a jerk with a weird sense of humor occurred later that same year.
Minor: One morning in early February the principal called me into his office to question me about a shoplifting incident in a nearby store.
Minor: Someone--Ivan--had reported seeing me stash stolen pens in my locker.
Minor: Fortunately, the owner of the store knew me and was certain I hadn't been in the store at the time the pens had disappeared.
Minor: Ivan eventually confessed to stealing the pens in order to get me into trouble.
Conclusion: This incident, on top of all of the previous ones, proved to me without the shadow of a doubt that Ivan is my enemy.